The historical elegance of silk

Silk has a rich and storied history in the world of fashion, dating back thousands of years. Originating in ancient China, silk was first discovered by Empress Leizu when she observed a silkworm spinning its cocoon. Recognizing the potential of the delicate threads, the Chinese developed sericulture—the cultivation of silkworms for silk production. This luxurious fabric quickly became a symbol of wealth and status in Chinese society.

First appearance of silk

Silk dates back over 8,500 years, with evidence found in Neolithic tombs at Jiahu, China. The discovery includes silk fibroin, bone needles, and weaving tools, suggesting early textile-making skills. Silk cocoon fragments dating to 4000–3000 BCE were identified as Bombyx mori, the domesticated silkworm, while primitive looms were discovered in Hemudu culture sites (4000 BCE). The earliest woven silk fabric (3630 BCE) was used to wrap a child at a Yangshao site, with similar findings at Liangzhu and Shang dynasty tombs.

China initially monopolized silk production for millennia, spreading its knowledge to Korea, Japan, and India by the 2nd century BCE. Silk became a prized export via trade networks and was used by Persian royalty and others across Eurasia. Early examples of silk production outside China include Indus Valley finds dated to 2450–2000 BCE, with evidence of reeling and sericulture predating later examples in India.

Myths and legends

Empress Leizu is credited in Chinese mythology with discovering silk around 3000 BC when a silkworm cocoon fell into her teacup. Inspired by the long fibers, she began weaving cloth and taught others sericulture, becoming the goddess of silk. Knowledge of silk later spread outside China, such as through a princess who smuggled silkworms to Khotan in the early 1st century AD. Despite silk exports, China guarded sericulture secrets, leading to myths in other cultures. Romans believed silk came from tree leaves, a notion echoed by Seneca and Virgil, while Pliny the Elder correctly identified its origin from silkworms in his Natural History.

Silk usage in Ancient and Medieval China

Silkworm farming in China was initially restricted to women, and silk became highly coveted, reserved for the imperial family for about a millennium. Gradually, silk use expanded to the upper classes and was employed for decorative purposes and practical uses, such as musical instruments and fishing. Peasants were barred from wearing silk until the Qing dynasty.

Silk was also used to make luxury paper from the 2nd century BC, as discovered in writings found in tombs like Mawangdui. During the Han dynasty, silk became a valuable commodity, serving as currency and compensation. It was also offered as a diplomatic gift and used to pay soldiers, who traded it with nomads.

The significance of silk influenced Chinese script, with its character becoming a principal radical. Silk was heavily regulated, with specific colors and motifs denoting ranks or roles, particularly during the Tang and Song dynasties. Accessories like wallets, belts, and embroidered fabrics gained prominence in the Ming dynasty, with detailed motifs described in works like Jin Ping Mei.

The Silk Road and trade (2nd–8th century)

Archaeological finds show silk was a luxury material valued internationally long before the Silk Road’s opening. Silk from 1070 BC was discovered in Egypt, and Greeks and Romans referred to China as “Serica,” the land of silk. The Silk Road was established in the 2nd century AD, connecting Xi’an to the Mediterranean through vast trade caravans. After Egypt’s conquest in 30 BC, regular silk commerce emerged, with the Romans importing silk from the Far East via Parthian traders. The Roman Senate attempted to ban silk, deeming it decadent and costly.

China traded silk, teas, and porcelain, while India supplied spices, textiles, and precious stones, and the Romans exported goods like gold and fine glassware. Trade relied on intermediaries and routes through bustling oasis towns. From Antiquity to the Middle Ages, Indian, Bactrian, Sogdian, Arab, and Persian traders facilitated exchanges. While land trade declined in favor of sea routes, the Silk Road shaped civilizations by spreading goods, technologies, religions, and even the bubonic plague. Traded items included silk, spices, perfumes, jewels, and even slaves.

Global spread of sericulture (4th–16th century)

Sericulture reached Japan around 300 AD through Chinese teachers, later expanding via diplomatic exchanges in the 8th and 9th centuries. By the 4th century BC, silk was traded with the Hellenistic world for gold, ivory, and precious stones. Sassanid Persia controlled silk trade to Europe and Byzantium, while the Greeks valued Chinese silk and attempted to establish sericulture in the Mediterranean. The word “silk” derives from the Greek “σηρικός” (Seres).

In 552 AD, Byzantine emperor Justinian smuggled silkworm eggs through Nestorian monks, starting a silk industry in the Eastern Roman Empire. Byzantine silk was prized for its quality and craftsmanship. During Arab conquests, sericulture spread to the Mediterranean, including North Africa, Andalusia, and Southern Italy. By 1050, Calabria cultivated 24,000 mulberry trees. Byzantine and Muslim silk centers influenced silk-making, but surviving examples are difficult to date accurately.

Silk production in Northern Italy (13th – 17th century)

Catanzaro in Calabria introduced silk production to Italy between the 9th and 11th centuries, supplying much of Europe and earning the title of lace capital. With a large silkworm facility, it produced silks, velvets, damasks, and brocades, reaching 50% of Italy’s silk production. Genoese artisans used Calabrian silk for velvets, while Chinese silk dominated until the Crusades spread silk-making techniques to Europe.

In 1147, Norman king Roger II attacked Byzantine silk centers, relocating workers to Sicily and Calabria, boosting the Norman silk industry. Constantinople’s decline after the Fourth Crusade led artisans to Italy, contributing to a domestic silk boom in cities like Lucca, Genoa, Venice, and Florence, which exported silk across Europe. By 1519, Emperor Charles V formalized Catanzaro’s silk guild, with 500 looms and thousands employed, exporting silk to Naples, Venice, France, Spain, and England.

The silk industry development in Europe

Italian silk was highly valued for its quality but costly due to expensive raw materials and production processes. French fashion demands for cheaper, lighter materials led to local production, though Italian silk remained prized for furnishings and vibrant dyes.

In 1466, King Louis XI sought to establish a national silk industry in Lyon, inviting Italian weavers, including those from Catanzaro, to teach techniques. Despite protests, silk production briefly moved to Tours before Lyon gained a monopoly under Francis I in 1540, becoming Europe’s silk capital by the 16th century. By the 17th century, over 14,000 looms operated in Lyon, sustaining a third of the city’s population.

Provence experienced a sericulture boom from the 18th century until World War I, with much of its silk transported to Lyon. Home-based silk spinning provided income for many working-class families, and while mulberry plantations dwindled, some silk centers continue operating today.

Efforts to develop a silk industry in England under Henry IV gained traction only after the Edict of Nantes was revoked in the 1680s, leading to the immigration of skilled French Huguenot weavers. Spitalfields became known for its high-quality silk workshops, but England’s climate limited its silk trade. Attempts to establish silk production in the American colonies under King James I in 1619 and in Mexico by Cortez in 1522 saw limited success, with few new silk industries achieving significant growth.

Silk in the modern day (1760–20th century)

The Industrial Revolution began with a textile boom in Great Britain, particularly in cotton, driven by technological innovations. Early on, disparities in innovation across fabric manufacturing stages, like faster spinning than weaving, spurred further advancements. However, the silk industry didn’t benefit from spinning innovations. Silk production, especially of silver and gold brocades, was intricate, requiring individual shuttles for each color.

The 17th and 18th centuries saw simplification and standardization in silk manufacture, culminating in the punched card loom by Bouchon and Falcon, later improved by Vaucanson and then Jacquard. The revolutionary Jacquard loom, introduced by Joseph-Marie Jacquard, used punched cards for mechanical processing, a direct precursor to modern computers and their programmability.

By 1801, the Jacquard loom enabled the mechanization and mass production of embroidery-style designs. Despite worker protests over job losses, the Jacquard loom became essential, was declared public property, and earned Jacquard a pension and royalties. By 1834, Lyon had 2,885 Jacquard looms. Worker unrest over the loom led to the Canut revolts in Lyon in 1831 and 1834, foreshadowing later Industrial Revolution uprisings.

The European silk industry’s decline stemmed from silkworm epidemics. In 1849, a disease devastated French silk crops, spreading to other European and Asian regions. Agostino Bassi identified the parasitic fungus Beauveria bassiana as the cause of white muscardine disease in 1835, the first demonstration of animal disease transmission, enabling better prevention. However, other diseases persisted.

In 1865, Louis Pasteur, at the request of France’s Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, discovered pébrine (caused by Nosema bombycis) and flacherie (a viral infection) affecting silkworms. His recommendations for removing infected worms helped restore silk production. Despite this, rising cocoon prices, decreased silk demand among the bourgeoisie, and the Suez Canal opening (1869), which lowered the cost of Asian silk imports, contributed to Europe’s silk industry decline.

The Long Depression (1873-1896) led to the industrialization of Lyonnais silk production and the disappearance of handlooms. 19th-century chemical advancements also played a role, with the synthesis of aniline for mauveine dye and quinine for indigo dye. The 1884 invention of viscose by Count Hilaire de Chardonnet, intended as a cheaper artificial silk, further impacted the industry.

After the European silk crisis, Japan’s sericulture modernization made it the top global producer, reaching 60% of world raw silk output by the early 20th century, primarily exported via Yokohama. Italy recovered, but France didn’t, as European urbanization shifted agricultural workers to factories, leading to raw silk imports from Japan. Asian nations increasingly exported finished garments instead of raw materials.

WWII cut off Japanese silk supplies, prompting Western countries to use synthetic substitutes like nylon. Silk couldn’t recover lost markets post-war, remaining a luxury. Post-war Japan became the leading raw silk exporter until the 1970s through technological advancements and protectionism. However, the rise of synthetics and a less protected economy caused Japan’s silk industry to decline, making it a net importer by 1975.

Silk in modern times

China is now once again the world’s largest producer of silk. The rise of new imitation silk fabrics, such as nylon and polyester, has reduced the prevalence of silk throughout the world, being cheaper and easier to care for. Silk is now once again thought of as a luxury good. In the 20th century, silk continued to play a prominent role in fashion, with designers like Coco Chanel, Yves Saint Laurent, and Christian Dior incorporating the fabric into their iconic creations. Silk’s versatility, natural sheen, and luxurious feel have made it a perennial favorite in high fashion, lingerie, and eveningwear.

Today, silk remains a prized material in the fashion industry, valued for its beauty, comfort, and sustainability. With ongoing innovations in silk production and a growing emphasis on eco-friendly practices, silk continues to enchant and inspire designers and fashion enthusiasts worldwide.